{ "source_file": "0930", "source_platform": "Medium", "author": "John Leung", "title_listed": "Feature Engineering for Time-Series Using PySpark on Databricks", "keywords": "", "domain": "数据处理", "content_type": "深度技术解析", "is_paid_flag": "否", "url": "https://towardsdatascience.com/feature-engineering-for-time-series-using-pyspark-on-databricks-02b97d62a287/", "publish_date": "2024-05-15", "corpus_stage": "", "notes": "", "id": "8888feac2415", "collected_at": "2026-10-02T04:28:31", "title": "Feature Engineering for Time-Series Using PySpark on Databricks | Towards Data Science", "body_markdown": "![Revisit consent button](../images/body-df29beacd7496220cc94.svg)\nWe value your privacy\nWe use cookies to enhance your browsing experience, serve personalised ads or content, and analyse our traffic. 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It is powerful in distributed data processing due to its [master-worker architecture](https://towardsdatascience.com/a-beginners-guide-to-apache-spark-ff301cb4cd92). This includes a driver program that coordinates with the cluster manager (master) and controls the execution of distributing smaller tasks to worker nodes. Besides, designed as an in-memory data processing engine, Spark primarily uses RAM to store and manipulate data, rather than relying on disk storage. These coordinately facilitate faster execution of overall tasks.\n![Photo by Dawid Zawiła on Unsplash](../images/000.jpg)\nPhoto by [Dawid Zawiła](https://unsplash.com/@davealmine?utm_source=medium&utm_medium=referral) on [Unsplash](https://unsplash.com?utm_source=medium&utm_medium=referral)\nLearn this step by step with the interactive [AI and Data Scientist](https://roadmap.sh/ai-data-scientist) roadmap.\n### Apache Spark: From low-level to high-level\nAt the lower level, its architecture is designed based on two main abstractions:\n * Resilient Distributed Dataset ([RDD](https://spark.apache.org/docs/latest/rdd-programming-guide.html)) - A low-level data abstraction in which each dataset can be divided into logical portions and executed on cluster worker nodes, thus aiding in parallel programming.\n * Directed Acyclic Graph ([DAG](https://sparkbyexamples.com/spark/what-is-dag-in-spark/)) - The representation that facilitates optimizing and scheduling the dependencies and sequences of tasks.\n\n\nAt the higher level, we can leverage a rich set of high-level tools using languages Scala, Python, or R. Examples of tools include [Spark SQL](https://spark.apache.org/sql/) for SQL and DataFrames, [Pandas API](https://spark.apache.org/docs/latest/api/python/user_guide/pandas_on_spark/index.html) on Spark for Pandas workloads, and [Structured Streaming](https://spark.apache.org/docs/latest/structured-streaming-programming-guide.html) for stream processing.\nHowever, before enjoying these functionalities, we may need much effort to self-manage a Spark cluster with the setup of infrastructure and a bunch of complex tools, which could cause a headache.\n### PySpark on Databricks\nTo address these challenges, [PySpark](https://spark.apache.org/docs/latest/api/python/index.html) on [Databricks](https://docs.databricks.com/en/introduction/index.html) is recently one of the high-level solutions in the industry. PySpark is the Python API for Spark, while Databricks is a full software platform built on top of Spark. It includes notebooks, infrastructure orchestration (auto-provisioning and scaling), process orchestration (job submission and scheduling), managed clusters, and even source control.\n* * *\nUsing PySpark APIs in Databricks, we will demonstrate and perform a feature engineering project on time series data. In this hands-on journey, we will simulate how Pandas library generally behaves for data processing, with the extra benefits of scalability and parallelism.\n_Note: If you want to know further how to dynamically orchestrate this Databricks notebook written in PySpark APIs in Azure, you can click_[ _here_](https://medium.com/towards-data-science/orchestrating-a-dynamic-time-series-pipeline-with-azure-data-factory-and-databricks-810819608231) _._\n![Photo by Alexandru Boicu on Unsplash](../images/001.jpg)\nPhoto by [Alexandru Boicu](https://unsplash.com/@boiq?utm_source=medium&utm_medium=referral) on [Unsplash](https://unsplash.com?utm_source=medium&utm_medium=referral)\nConsider a scenario in which you have the electric power consumption data for your household on hand, sampled at a one-minute rate from December 2006 to November 2010. Our objective is to ingest and manipulate data, extract features, and generate visualizations.\nThe [dataset](https://www.kaggle.com/datasets/uciml/electric-power-consumption-data-set/data) [with license as [Database: Open Database, Contents: Database Contents](https://opendatacommons.org/licenses/dbcl/1-0/)], obtained from Kaggle, includes various fields such as date, time, global power (active and reactive), voltage, global intensity, and submetering (1, 2 and 3). We can begin our analysis now.\n### The initial setup\nTo begin, we need to create a user account for [Databricks Community Edition](https://www.databricks.com/product/faq/community-edition), which gives a suitable Databricks environment for our proof-of-concept purpose. Afterward, we can upload the input data file to the FileStore, a dedicated Databricks path. By clicking \"Create Table in Notebook\", you are provided with the code template to initiate data ingestion.\n![Initial setup \\(1/2\\) - Create a user account \\(Image by author\\)](../images/002.png)\nInitial setup (1/2) - Create a user account (Image by author)\n![Initial setup \\(2/2\\) - Create a new table \\(Image by author\\)](../images/003.png)\nInitial setup (2/2) - Create a new table (Image by author)\n### Create a feature engineering project\n**#1 Ingest data**\n * Static data\n\n\nWe use the method `spark.read()` to read our data source and return a DataFrame, a relational table. It supports various data sources such as CSV, JSON, Parquet, and more. In this case, we read the power consumption data in CSV format with a defined schema, where the first row serves as the header, and \";\" is as the delimiter.\npython\n\n```\n# File location and type\nfile_location = \"/FileStore/tables/household_power_consumption.csv\"\nfile_type = \"csv\"\n\n# CSV options\nschema = \"Date STRING, Time STRING, Global_active_power DOUBLE, Global_reactive_power DOUBLE, Voltage DOUBLE, Global_intensity DOUBLE, Sub_metering_1 DOUBLE, Sub_metering_2 DOUBLE, Sub_metering_3 DOUBLE\"\nfirst_row_as_header = \"true\"\ndelimiter = \";\"\n\n# Read CSV files\norg_df = spark.read.format(file_type) \n.schema(schema) \n.option(\"header\", first_row_as_header) \n.option(\"delimiter\", delimiter) \n.load(file_location)\n\ndisplay(org_df)\n```\n\nThe output of the DataFrame with the first several rows:\n![Output of the DataFrame \\(Image by author\\)](../images/004.png)\nOutput of the DataFrame (Image by author)\n * Streaming data\n\n\nIn scenarios where data is continuously generated, we use stream processing techniques to read it incrementally. To demonstrate Spark's behavior, I partitioned the original dataset into 10 subsets and stored them at the path \"/FileStore/tables/stream/\" beforehand. We then use another method `spark.readStream()`for streaming data.\npython\n\n```\nsourceStream=spark.readStream.format(\"csv\") \n.option(\"header\",True) \n.schema(schema) \n.option(\"mode\",\"dropMalformed\") \n.option(\"maxFilesPerTrigger\",1) \n.option(\"ignoreLeadingWhiteSpace\",True) \n.load(\"dbfs:/FileStore/tables/stream\") \n```\n\nIt is worth mentioning that the `mode` setting as \"dropMalformed\" means that we discard the corrupted records, no matter whether the corruption is due to structural inconsistencies or other factors that make them unusable. Also, we choose to process only one file per trigger event.\nBy starting to receive data and checking the record count every ten seconds, we can observe the continuous arrival of streaming data.\npython\n\n```\nimport time\n\n# Stream the content of the DataFrame\nquery = sourceStream.writeStream \n.queryName(\"count\") \n.format(\"memory\") \n.outputMode(\"append\") \n.start()\n\n# Display the count of rows\nfor _ in range(10):\n spark.sql(\"SELECT COUNT(*) AS no_of_rows FROM count\").show()\n time.sleep(10)\n```\n\n**#2 Manipulate and explore data**\n * Data transformation\n\n\nSince the number of rows with missing values is relatively negligible, we choose to drop them. Besides, we extract time-related features so that patterns can potentially be observed in higher dimensions later.\npython\n\n```\nfrom pyspark.sql.functions import col, concat_ws, to_date\n\n# Drop rows with missing values\ndf = org_df.na.drop()\n\n# Convert columns \"Date\" and \"Time\" into new column \"DateTime\"\ndf = df.withColumn(\"Date\", to_date(col(\"Date\"),\"d/M/y\"))\ndf = df.withColumn(\"Date\", df[\"Date\"].cast(\"date\"))\ndf = df.select(concat_ws(\" \", to_date(col(\"Date\"),\"d/M/y\"), col(\"Time\")).alias(\"DateTime\"), \"*\")\ndf = df.withColumn(\"DateTime\", df[\"DateTime\"].cast(\"timestamp\"))\n\n# Add time-related features\ndf = df.withColumn(\"year\", year(\"DateTime\"))\ndf = df.withColumn(\"month\", month(\"DateTime\"))\ndf = df.withColumn(\"week_num\", weekofyear(\"DateTime\"))\ndf = df.withColumn(\"hour\", hour(\"DateTime\"))\n```\n\n * Data exploration\n\n\nWe can explore data with various basic [PySpark methods](https://spark.apache.org/docs/3.1.1/api/python/reference/api/pyspark.sql.DataFrame.html).\n(1) Select\nThe \"'select\" method allows us to create a subset of the data frame column-wise. In this example, we select columns in descending order of global active power.\npython\n\n```\ndf.select(\"DateTime\", \"Global_active_power\", \"Global_intensity\").sort(\"Global_active_power\", ascending=False).show(5)\n```\n\n![Output of "select" method \\(Image by author\\)](../images/005.png)\nOutput of \"select\" method (Image by author)\n(2) Filter\nThis filters data points based on column values. In this example, we filter by two columns: \"year\" and \"Global_intensity\".\npython\n\n```\ndf.filter(\n (col(\"year\") == 2009) &\n (col(\"Global_intensity\") > 40)\n).count()\n\n# Output: 10\n```\n\n(3) groupby\nWe can also perform some aggregations. In our dataset, we calculate the average of global active power and sub-meterings for different months.\npython\n\n```\ndf.groupby(\"month\").agg(\n round(mean(\"Global_active_power\"), 2).alias(\"Avg_global_active_power\"),\n round(mean(\"Sub_metering_1\"), 2).alias(\"Avg_sub_metering_1\"),\n round(mean(\"Sub_metering_2\"), 2).alias(\"Avg_sub_metering_2\"),\n round(mean(\"Sub_metering_3\"), 2).alias(\"Avg_sub_metering_3\"),\n).sort([\"month\"]).show(5)\n```\n\n![Output of "groupby" method \\(Image by author\\)](../images/006.png)\nOutput of \"groupby\" method (Image by author)\n**#3 Extract features using Window functions**\nIn addition to the above basic PySpark methods and functions, we can leverage [Window functions](https://spark.apache.org/docs/latest/api/python/reference/pyspark.sql/api/pyspark.sql.Window.html) to generate additional features to capture temporal dependencies and relationships in time series data. Assuming we have a transformed dataset (\"df2\") where the total global active power is aggregated by day from one-minute rate samples. Let's explore how we can obtain these features.\n(1) Lag features\nThese represent the metrics' values from previous days, which aids our models in learning from historical data and identifying trends.\npython\n\n```\nfrom pyspark.sql.window import Window\nfrom pyspark.sql.functions import lag, round\n\n# Create a Window specification based on the 'Date' column\nwindowSpec = Window.orderBy(\"Date\")\n\n# Calculate the lagged value of 'Total_global_active_power'\ndf2 = df2.withColumn(\"power_lag1\", round(lag(col(\"Total_global_active_power\"), 1).over(windowSpec), 2))\n\ndisplay(df2)\n```\n\n![Output - Lag features \\(Image by author\\)](../images/007.png)\nOutput - Lag features (Image by author)\n(2) Delta features\nThis is to take a subsequent step to capture short-term changes or variations over time by calculating the difference between original data fields and the lag features.\npython\n\n```\n# Calculate the difference between columns\ndf2 = df2.withColumn(\"power_lag1_delta\", round(col(\"power_lag1\") - col(\"Total_global_active_power\"), 2))\n\ndisplay(df2)\n```\n\n![Output - Delta features \\(Image by author\\)](../images/008.png)\nOutput - Delta features (Image by author)\n(3) Window average features\nThese features calculate the average value of our target data fields within a sliding window, enabling us to capture the smoothed patterns and relatively long-term trends. Here I pick the window sizes as 14 (2 weeks) and 30 (roughly 1 month).\npython\n\n```\n# Add window average fields to the DataFrame for the specified window sizes\ndef add_window_avg_features(df, window_sizes):\n for window_size in window_sizes:\n window_col_name = f\"avg_power_l{window_size}\"\n windowSpec = Window.orderBy(\"Date\").rowsBetween(-window_size, 0)\n df = df.withColumn(window_col_name, round(avg(col(\"Total_global_active_power\")).over(windowSpec), 2))\n return df\n\nwindow_sizes = [14, 30]\ndf2 = add_window_avg_features(df2, window_sizes)\n\ndf2.select(\"Date\", \"Total_global_active_power\", \"avg_power_l14\", \"avg_power_l30\").sort(\"Date\", ascending=False).show(5)\n```\n\n![Output - Window average features \\(Image by author\\)](../images/009.png)\nOutput - Window average features (Image by author)\n(4) Exponentially weighted moving average (EWMA) features\nEWMA features are the rectified version of window average features by assigning more weight and emphasis to recent data, and less to past data. A higher value of weight (alpha) means that the EWMA features track more closely to the original time series. Here I pick two separate weights: 0.2 and 0.8.\npython\n\n```\nimport pyspark.pandas as ps\n\n# Add EWMA features to the DataFrame for the specified alpha values\ndef add_ewma_features(df, alphas):\n for alpha in alphas:\n ewma_col_name = f\"ewma_power_w{str(alpha).replace('.', '')}\"\n windowSpec = Window.orderBy(\"Date\")\n df[ewma_col_name] = df.Total_global_active_power.ewm(alpha=alpha).mean().round(2)\n return df\n\nalphas = [0.2, 0.8]\n# Convert into a pandas-on-Spark DataFrame, to use EWM function\ndf2_pd = df2.pandas_api()\ndf2_pd = add_ewma_features(df2_pd, alphas)\n# Convert back to a Spark DataFrame\ndf2 = df2_pd.to_spark()\n\ndf2.select(\"Date\", \"Total_global_active_power\", \"ewma_power_w02\", \"ewma_power_w08\").sort(\"Date\", ascending=False).show(5)\n```\n\n![Output - EWMA features \\(Image by author\\)](../images/010.png)\nOutput - EWMA features (Image by author)\n**#4 Generate visualizations on Notebook**\nAfter extracting time-related data and features using various PySpark functions and methods, we can use the built-in support from Databricks to create visualizations efficiently. This works by dragging and dropping data fields and configuring visual settings in the visualization editor. Some examples are shown below.\n * Scatter plot: Relationship between global active power and global intensity\n\n\n_Interpretation: There is a highly positive correlation between the two fields._\n![Scatter plot, using a visualization editor \\(Image by author\\)](../images/011.png)\nScatter plot, using a visualization editor (Image by author)\n * Box plot: The distribution of global active power across hours\n\n\n_Interpretation: There are relatively large variations of global active power from 7:00 to 21:00._\n![Box plot \\(Image by author\\)](../images/012.png)\nBox plot (Image by author)\n * Line chart: The changes in total global active power, EWMA with alpha 0.2, and EWMA with alpha 0.8 from Jan 2008 to Mar 2008\n\n\n_Interpretation: EWMA with alpha 0.8 sticks more closely to the original time series than EWMA with alpha 0.2._\n![Line chart \\(Image by author\\)](../images/body-9568a4bae424edc192d2.png)\nLine chart (Image by author)\nBesides, we can generate the default data profiles to display summary statistics such as count, % of missing values, and data distributions. This ensures data quality throughout the entire feature engineering process. These above visualizations can alternatively be created by the query output using Databricks SQL.\n### Wrapping it up\nIn our hands-on exploration, we used PySpark for feature engineering of time-series data using the Databricks platform:\n * Ingesting static and streaming data, by using the `spark.read()` and `spark.readStream()` methods respectively.\n * Manipulating and exploring data, by using a range of basic PySpark functions available in `pyspark.sql.functions`, and DataFrame methods.\n * Extract trend-related features, by calculating the relationship within groups of data using `pyspark.sql.Window`.\n * Visualization, by using the built-in features of Databricks Notebook.\n\n\nWhen dealing with a massive dataset, PySpark is often preferred over Pandas due to its scalability and performance capabilities. PySpark's support for lazy evaluation also means that computations are only performed when necessary, which reduces the overhead. However, Scala can sometimes be a better option, because we can closely catch up with the latest features as Spark itself is written in Scala. And more likely that systems which are less error-prone can be designed with the use of immutable objects. Different languages or libraries have their edges. Ultimately, the choice depends on the enterprise requirements, developers' learning curves, and integration with other systems.\n* * *\n### Before you go\nIf you enjoy this reading, I invite you to **** follow my [Medium page](https://medium.com/@johnleungTJ) and [LinkedIn page](https://www.linkedin.com/in/john-leung-639800115/). 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It also helps in adverstising on the website.\n\n\n * Cookie\nedgebucket\n * Duration\nsession\n * Description\nReddit sets this cookie to save the information about a log-on Reddit user, for the purpose of advertisement recommendations and updating the content.\n\n\n * Cookie\ndid\n * Duration\n1 year\n * Description\nArbor sets this cookie to show targeted ads to site visitors.This cookie expires after 2 months or 1 year.\n\n\nUncategorised\nOther uncategorised cookies are those that are being analysed and have not been classified into a category as yet.\nNo cookies to display.\nReject All Save My Preferences Accept All\nToggle Search[](https://towardsdatascience.com/)Toggle Mobile Navigation\n[](https://towardsdatascience.com/)\nPublish AI, ML & data-science insights to a global community of data professionals.\nSign in[Submit an Article](https://write.insightmediagroup.io)\n[Latest](https://towardsdatascience.com/latest/)[Editor's Picks](https://towardsdatascience.com/tag/editors-pick/)[Newsletter](https://towardsdatascience.com/tag/the-variable/)[ShipAI](https://towardsdatascience.com/shipai/)\n* * *\n[Write For TDS](https://towardsdatascience.com/submissions/)\n[LinkedIn](https://www.linkedin.com/company/towards-data-science/)[X](https://x.com/TDataScience)Toggle Search\n[Data Science](https://towardsdatascience.com/category/data-science/)\n# Feature Engineering for Time-Series Using PySpark on Databricks\nDiscover the potentials of PySpark for time-series data: Ingest, extract, and visualize data, accompanied by practical implementation codes\n[John Leung](https://towardsdatascience.com/author/johnleungtj/)\nMay 15, 20249 min read\n### Discover the potentials of PySpark for time-series data: Ingest, extract, and visualize data, accompanied by practical implementation code\nWith the increasing demand for high-speed querying and analysis on large datasets, [Apache Spark](https://spark.apache.org/) has stood out as one of the most popular analytical engines in recent years. It is powerful in distributed data processing due to its [master-worker architecture](https://towardsdatascience.com/a-beginners-guide-to-apache-spark-ff301cb4cd92). This includes a driver program that coordinates with the cluster manager (master) and controls the execution of distributing smaller tasks to worker nodes. Besides, designed as an in-memory data processing engine, Spark primarily uses RAM to store and manipulate data, rather than relying on disk storage. These coordinately facilitate faster execution of overall tasks.\n![Photo by Dawid Zawiła on Unsplash](https://assets.insightmediagroup.io/media/wp-content/uploads/2024/05/0Snni4h4UW_ZcQYmh-scaled.jpg)\nPhoto by [Dawid Zawiła](https://unsplash.com/@davealmine?utm_source=medium&utm_medium=referral) on [Unsplash](https://unsplash.com?utm_source=medium&utm_medium=referral)\nLearn this step by step with the interactive [AI and Data Scientist](https://roadmap.sh/ai-data-scientist) roadmap.\n### Apache Spark: From low-level to high-level\nAt the lower level, its architecture is designed based on two main abstractions:\n * Resilient Distributed Dataset ([RDD](https://spark.apache.org/docs/latest/rdd-programming-guide.html)) - A low-level data abstraction in which each dataset can be divided into logical portions and executed on cluster worker nodes, thus aiding in parallel programming.\n * Directed Acyclic Graph ([DAG](https://sparkbyexamples.com/spark/what-is-dag-in-spark/)) - The representation that facilitates optimizing and scheduling the dependencies and sequences of tasks.\n\n\nAt the higher level, we can leverage a rich set of high-level tools using languages Scala, Python, or R. Examples of tools include [Spark SQL](https://spark.apache.org/sql/) for SQL and DataFrames, [Pandas API](https://spark.apache.org/docs/latest/api/python/user_guide/pandas_on_spark/index.html) on Spark for Pandas workloads, and [Structured Streaming](https://spark.apache.org/docs/latest/structured-streaming-programming-guide.html) for stream processing.\nHowever, before enjoying these functionalities, we may need much effort to self-manage a Spark cluster with the setup of infrastructure and a bunch of complex tools, which could cause a headache.\n### PySpark on Databricks\nTo address these challenges, [PySpark](https://spark.apache.org/docs/latest/api/python/index.html) on [Databricks](https://docs.databricks.com/en/introduction/index.html) is recently one of the high-level solutions in the industry. PySpark is the Python API for Spark, while Databricks is a full software platform built on top of Spark. It includes notebooks, infrastructure orchestration (auto-provisioning and scaling), process orchestration (job submission and scheduling), managed clusters, and even source control.\n* * *\nUsing PySpark APIs in Databricks, we will demonstrate and perform a feature engineering project on time series data. In this hands-on journey, we will simulate how Pandas library generally behaves for data processing, with the extra benefits of scalability and parallelism.\n_Note: If you want to know further how to dynamically orchestrate this Databricks notebook written in PySpark APIs in Azure, you can click_[ _here_](https://medium.com/towards-data-science/orchestrating-a-dynamic-time-series-pipeline-with-azure-data-factory-and-databricks-810819608231) _._\n![Photo by Alexandru Boicu on Unsplash](https://assets.insightmediagroup.io/media/wp-content/uploads/2024/05/0jFGVo0U1jxlYynzr-1-scaled.jpg)\nPhoto by [Alexandru Boicu](https://unsplash.com/@boiq?utm_source=medium&utm_medium=referral) on [Unsplash](https://unsplash.com?utm_source=medium&utm_medium=referral)\nConsider a scenario in which you have the electric power consumption data for your household on hand, sampled at a one-minute rate from December 2006 to November 2010. Our objective is to ingest and manipulate data, extract features, and generate visualizations.\nThe [dataset](https://www.kaggle.com/datasets/uciml/electric-power-consumption-data-set/data) [with license as [Database: Open Database, Contents: Database Contents](https://opendatacommons.org/licenses/dbcl/1-0/)], obtained from Kaggle, includes various fields such as date, time, global power (active and reactive), voltage, global intensity, and submetering (1, 2 and 3). We can begin our analysis now.\n### The initial setup\nTo begin, we need to create a user account for [Databricks Community Edition](https://www.databricks.com/product/faq/community-edition), which gives a suitable Databricks environment for our proof-of-concept purpose. Afterward, we can upload the input data file to the FileStore, a dedicated Databricks path. By clicking \"Create Table in Notebook\", you are provided with the code template to initiate data ingestion.\n![Initial setup \\(1/2\\) - Create a user account \\(Image by author\\)](https://assets.insightmediagroup.io/media/wp-content/uploads/2024/05/1aD-5_gyqJtuLxJ-FHkhryQ-1.png)\nInitial setup (1/2) - Create a user account (Image by author)\n![Initial setup \\(2/2\\) - Create a new table \\(Image by author\\)](https://assets.insightmediagroup.io/media/wp-content/uploads/2024/05/1WmkI7UfRBSWsrHX9gj_eqg-1.png)\nInitial setup (2/2) - Create a new table (Image by author)\n### Create a feature engineering project\n**#1 Ingest data**\n * Static data\n\n\nWe use the method `spark.read()` to read our data source and return a DataFrame, a relational table. It supports various data sources such as CSV, JSON, Parquet, and more. In this case, we read the power consumption data in CSV format with a defined schema, where the first row serves as the header, and \";\" is as the delimiter.\npython\n\n```\n# File location and type\nfile_location = \"/FileStore/tables/household_power_consumption.csv\"\nfile_type = \"csv\"\n\n# CSV options\nschema = \"Date STRING, Time STRING, Global_active_power DOUBLE, Global_reactive_power DOUBLE, Voltage DOUBLE, Global_intensity DOUBLE, Sub_metering_1 DOUBLE, Sub_metering_2 DOUBLE, Sub_metering_3 DOUBLE\"\nfirst_row_as_header = \"true\"\ndelimiter = \";\"\n\n# Read CSV files\norg_df = spark.read.format(file_type) \n.schema(schema) \n.option(\"header\", first_row_as_header) \n.option(\"delimiter\", delimiter) \n.load(file_location)\n\ndisplay(org_df)\n```\n\nThe output of the DataFrame with the first several rows:\n![Output of the DataFrame \\(Image by author\\)](https://assets.insightmediagroup.io/media/wp-content/uploads/2024/05/10auUJ0iUEbnOijWmJyW60w-1.png)\nOutput of the DataFrame (Image by author)\n * Streaming data\n\n\nIn scenarios where data is continuously generated, we use stream processing techniques to read it incrementally. To demonstrate Spark's behavior, I partitioned the original dataset into 10 subsets and stored them at the path \"/FileStore/tables/stream/\" beforehand. We then use another method `spark.readStream()`for streaming data.\npython\n\n```\nsourceStream=spark.readStream.format(\"csv\") \n.option(\"header\",True) \n.schema(schema) \n.option(\"mode\",\"dropMalformed\") \n.option(\"maxFilesPerTrigger\",1) \n.option(\"ignoreLeadingWhiteSpace\",True) \n.load(\"dbfs:/FileStore/tables/stream\") \n```\n\nIt is worth mentioning that the `mode` setting as \"dropMalformed\" means that we discard the corrupted records, no matter whether the corruption is due to structural inconsistencies or other factors that make them unusable. Also, we choose to process only one file per trigger event.\nBy starting to receive data and checking the record count every ten seconds, we can observe the continuous arrival of streaming data.\npython\n\n```\nimport time\n\n# Stream the content of the DataFrame\nquery = sourceStream.writeStream \n.queryName(\"count\") \n.format(\"memory\") \n.outputMode(\"append\") \n.start()\n\n# Display the count of rows\nfor _ in range(10):\n spark.sql(\"SELECT COUNT(*) AS no_of_rows FROM count\").show()\n time.sleep(10)\n```\n\n**#2 Manipulate and explore data**\n * Data transformation\n\n\nSince the number of rows with missing values is relatively negligible, we choose to drop them. Besides, we extract time-related features so that patterns can potentially be observed in higher dimensions later.\npython\n\n```\nfrom pyspark.sql.functions import col, concat_ws, to_date\n\n# Drop rows with missing values\ndf = org_df.na.drop()\n\n# Convert columns \"Date\" and \"Time\" into new column \"DateTime\"\ndf = df.withColumn(\"Date\", to_date(col(\"Date\"),\"d/M/y\"))\ndf = df.withColumn(\"Date\", df[\"Date\"].cast(\"date\"))\ndf = df.select(concat_ws(\" \", to_date(col(\"Date\"),\"d/M/y\"), col(\"Time\")).alias(\"DateTime\"), \"*\")\ndf = df.withColumn(\"DateTime\", df[\"DateTime\"].cast(\"timestamp\"))\n\n# Add time-related features\ndf = df.withColumn(\"year\", year(\"DateTime\"))\ndf = df.withColumn(\"month\", month(\"DateTime\"))\ndf = df.withColumn(\"week_num\", weekofyear(\"DateTime\"))\ndf = df.withColumn(\"hour\", hour(\"DateTime\"))\n```\n\n * Data exploration\n\n\nWe can explore data with various basic [PySpark methods](https://spark.apache.org/docs/3.1.1/api/python/reference/api/pyspark.sql.DataFrame.html).\n(1) Select\nThe \"'select\" method allows us to create a subset of the data frame column-wise. In this example, we select columns in descending order of global active power.\npython\n\n```\ndf.select(\"DateTime\", \"Global_active_power\", \"Global_intensity\").sort(\"Global_active_power\", ascending=False).show(5)\n```\n\n![Output of "select" method \\(Image by author\\)](https://assets.insightmediagroup.io/media/wp-content/uploads/2024/05/1nvT_fGjAWEH7i9SYjbBgAg-1.png)\nOutput of \"select\" method (Image by author)\n(2) Filter\nThis filters data points based on column values. In this example, we filter by two columns: \"year\" and \"Global_intensity\".\npython\n\n```\ndf.filter(\n (col(\"year\") == 2009) &\n (col(\"Global_intensity\") > 40)\n).count()\n\n# Output: 10\n```\n\n(3) groupby\nWe can also perform some aggregations. In our dataset, we calculate the average of global active power and sub-meterings for different months.\npython\n\n```\ndf.groupby(\"month\").agg(\n round(mean(\"Global_active_power\"), 2).alias(\"Avg_global_active_power\"),\n round(mean(\"Sub_metering_1\"), 2).alias(\"Avg_sub_metering_1\"),\n round(mean(\"Sub_metering_2\"), 2).alias(\"Avg_sub_metering_2\"),\n round(mean(\"Sub_metering_3\"), 2).alias(\"Avg_sub_metering_3\"),\n).sort([\"month\"]).show(5)\n```\n\n![Output of "groupby" method \\(Image by author\\)](https://assets.insightmediagroup.io/media/wp-content/uploads/2024/05/1GV-zkSb77-esqtjNq0hKsw-1.png)\nOutput of \"groupby\" method (Image by author)\n**#3 Extract features using Window functions**\nIn addition to the above basic PySpark methods and functions, we can leverage [Window functions](https://spark.apache.org/docs/latest/api/python/reference/pyspark.sql/api/pyspark.sql.Window.html) to generate additional features to capture temporal dependencies and relationships in time series data. Assuming we have a transformed dataset (\"df2\") where the total global active power is aggregated by day from one-minute rate samples. Let's explore how we can obtain these features.\n(1) Lag features\nThese represent the metrics' values from previous days, which aids our models in learning from historical data and identifying trends.\npython\n\n```\nfrom pyspark.sql.window import Window\nfrom pyspark.sql.functions import lag, round\n\n# Create a Window specification based on the 'Date' column\nwindowSpec = Window.orderBy(\"Date\")\n\n# Calculate the lagged value of 'Total_global_active_power'\ndf2 = df2.withColumn(\"power_lag1\", round(lag(col(\"Total_global_active_power\"), 1).over(windowSpec), 2))\n\ndisplay(df2)\n```\n\n![Output - Lag features \\(Image by author\\)](https://assets.insightmediagroup.io/media/wp-content/uploads/2024/05/14Avt7uCS97MXC4j29liYRg-1.png)\nOutput - Lag features (Image by author)\n(2) Delta features\nThis is to take a subsequent step to capture short-term changes or variations over time by calculating the difference between original data fields and the lag features.\npython\n\n```\n# Calculate the difference between columns\ndf2 = df2.withColumn(\"power_lag1_delta\", round(col(\"power_lag1\") - col(\"Total_global_active_power\"), 2))\n\ndisplay(df2)\n```\n\n![Output - Delta features \\(Image by author\\)](https://assets.insightmediagroup.io/media/wp-content/uploads/2024/05/1e9jhhfVhsFpJlnHTbtiffQ-1.png)\nOutput - Delta features (Image by author)\n(3) Window average features\nThese features calculate the average value of our target data fields within a sliding window, enabling us to capture the smoothed patterns and relatively long-term trends. Here I pick the window sizes as 14 (2 weeks) and 30 (roughly 1 month).\npython\n\n```\n# Add window average fields to the DataFrame for the specified window sizes\ndef add_window_avg_features(df, window_sizes):\n for window_size in window_sizes:\n window_col_name = f\"avg_power_l{window_size}\"\n windowSpec = Window.orderBy(\"Date\").rowsBetween(-window_size, 0)\n df = df.withColumn(window_col_name, round(avg(col(\"Total_global_active_power\")).over(windowSpec), 2))\n return df\n\nwindow_sizes = [14, 30]\ndf2 = add_window_avg_features(df2, window_sizes)\n\ndf2.select(\"Date\", \"Total_global_active_power\", \"avg_power_l14\", \"avg_power_l30\").sort(\"Date\", ascending=False).show(5)\n```\n\n![Output - Window average features \\(Image by author\\)](https://assets.insightmediagroup.io/media/wp-content/uploads/2024/05/1uarOPKDRUEbsW9npvi2xFQ-1.png)\nOutput - Window average features (Image by author)\n(4) Exponentially weighted moving average (EWMA) features\nEWMA features are the rectified version of window average features by assigning more weight and emphasis to recent data, and less to past data. A higher value of weight (alpha) means that the EWMA features track more closely to the original time series. Here I pick two separate weights: 0.2 and 0.8.\npython\n\n```\nimport pyspark.pandas as ps\n\n# Add EWMA features to the DataFrame for the specified alpha values\ndef add_ewma_features(df, alphas):\n for alpha in alphas:\n ewma_col_name = f\"ewma_power_w{str(alpha).replace('.', '')}\"\n windowSpec = Window.orderBy(\"Date\")\n df[ewma_col_name] = df.Total_global_active_power.ewm(alpha=alpha).mean().round(2)\n return df\n\nalphas = [0.2, 0.8]\n# Convert into a pandas-on-Spark DataFrame, to use EWM function\ndf2_pd = df2.pandas_api()\ndf2_pd = add_ewma_features(df2_pd, alphas)\n# Convert back to a Spark DataFrame\ndf2 = df2_pd.to_spark()\n\ndf2.select(\"Date\", \"Total_global_active_power\", \"ewma_power_w02\", \"ewma_power_w08\").sort(\"Date\", ascending=False).show(5)\n```\n\n![Output - EWMA features \\(Image by author\\)](https://assets.insightmediagroup.io/media/wp-content/uploads/2024/05/1DO7N1C4V8vnPqcAC21B7og-1.png)\nOutput - EWMA features (Image by author)\n**#4 Generate visualizations on Notebook**\nAfter extracting time-related data and features using various PySpark functions and methods, we can use the built-in support from Databricks to create visualizations efficiently. This works by dragging and dropping data fields and configuring visual settings in the visualization editor. Some examples are shown below.\n * Scatter plot: Relationship between global active power and global intensity\n\n\n_Interpretation: There is a highly positive correlation between the two fields._\n![Scatter plot, using a visualization editor \\(Image by author\\)](https://assets.insightmediagroup.io/media/wp-content/uploads/2024/05/1Fim8xcbWtUWgeO-t3s7zkQ-1.png)\nScatter plot, using a visualization editor (Image by author)\n * Box plot: The distribution of global active power across hours\n\n\n_Interpretation: There are relatively large variations of global active power from 7:00 to 21:00._\n![Box plot \\(Image by author\\)](https://assets.insightmediagroup.io/media/wp-content/uploads/2024/05/1ZZOpTtWdcetFIADhFUiUnA-1.png)\nBox plot (Image by author)\n * Line chart: The changes in total global active power, EWMA with alpha 0.2, and EWMA with alpha 0.8 from Jan 2008 to Mar 2008\n\n\n_Interpretation: EWMA with alpha 0.8 sticks more closely to the original time series than EWMA with alpha 0.2._\n![Line chart \\(Image by author\\)](https://assets.insightmediagroup.io/media/wp-content/uploads/2024/05/1xw49_XZROcjYv7JYRIV9uQ-1.png)\nLine chart (Image by author)\nBesides, we can generate the default data profiles to display summary statistics such as count, % of missing values, and data distributions. This ensures data quality throughout the entire feature engineering process. These above visualizations can alternatively be created by the query output using Databricks SQL.\n### Wrapping it up\nIn our hands-on exploration, we used PySpark for feature engineering of time-series data using the Databricks platform:\n * Ingesting static and streaming data, by using the `spark.read()` and `spark.readStream()` methods respectively.\n * Manipulating and exploring data, by using a range of basic PySpark functions available in `pyspark.sql.functions`, and DataFrame methods.\n * Extract trend-related features, by calculating the relationship within groups of data using `pyspark.sql.Window`.\n * Visualization, by using the built-in features of Databricks Notebook.\n\n\nWhen dealing with a massive dataset, PySpark is often preferred over Pandas due to its scalability and performance capabilities. PySpark's support for lazy evaluation also means that computations are only performed when necessary, which reduces the overhead. However, Scala can sometimes be a better option, because we can closely catch up with the latest features as Spark itself is written in Scala. And more likely that systems which are less error-prone can be designed with the use of immutable objects. Different languages or libraries have their edges. Ultimately, the choice depends on the enterprise requirements, developers' learning curves, and integration with other systems.\n* * *\n### Before you go\nIf you enjoy this reading, I invite you to **** follow my [Medium page](https://medium.com/@johnleungTJ) and [LinkedIn page](https://www.linkedin.com/in/john-leung-639800115/). By doing so, you can stay updated with exciting content related to data science side projects, and Machine Learning Operations (MLOps) demonstrations methodologies.\n> [**Performing Customer Analytics with LangChain and LLMs**](https://towardsdatascience.com/performing-customer-analytics-with-langchain-and-llms-0af4ea38f7b5)\n> [**Managing the Technical Debts of Machine Learning Systems**](https://towardsdatascience.com/managing-the-technical-debts-of-machine-learning-systems-5b85d420ab9d)\n## Register Now to Continue Reading\n### Unlock Towards Data Science with a Free Account\nAll articles on Towards Data Science are available to registered users. 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